The school discipline gap in England

: Exploring inequalities in disciplinary school exclusions before and during Covid-19

Abstract

Disciplinary school exclusions (DSE), known such as suspensions and expulsions, are on the rise in England, disproportionately affecting the most disadvantaged and vulnerable pupils. This discipline gap is especially prominent at the secondary school level, during a key developmental stage for young people. The Covid-19 pandemic profoundly disrupted education systems and prompted widespread innovation in behaviour management, creating a unique opportunity to explore DSE as a complex, evolving issue within schools. This study, located in Blackpool—a town with high rates of socio-economic disadvantage and DSE—examines how Covid-19 influenced DSE across secondary schools by conceptualising the school climate as a complex adaptive system (CAS).
Using a complexity and critical realist lens, this mixed-methods study investigated changes in DSE rates, risk factors, school climate, and protective mechanisms across three secondary schools in Blackpool. Quantitative data included administrative DSE records (N=8830), pupil survey data (N=345), and staff survey data (N=53) measuring wellbeing, resilience, and inclusive practices. Qualitative data consisted of staff interviews and open-ended survey responses.
Findings revealed that DSE increased significantly across Blackpool during the pandemic, particularly among pupils eligible for Free School Meals (FSM) and those with Special Educational Needs (SEN). Patterns of risk changed, with new groups of pupils becoming more vulnerable to DSE. At the same time, all three case study schools experienced significant shifts in school climate, including reduced professional interaction among staff and declines in pupil preparedness and confidence in learning.
Protective mechanisms that helped mitigate DSE were highly contextual and encompassed patterns and interdependence of school relationships, feedback loops relating to inclusive practices, understanding DSE was a non-linear necessary part of school life and awareness of the open and interdependent nature of external pressures. Consistency, positive values, external support, and holistic approaches were key factors underpinning these mechanisms.
The study concludes that Covid-19 was associated with increased DSE and a widening discipline gap for vulnerable pupils. To address this, schools must embed relational, inclusive behaviour policies, foster strong interdependent relationships, and engage families as part of the wider school system. Policymakers should align with schools rather than impose top-down approaches that disregard local complexities.
This research contributes to rethinking DSE as a complex, non-linear phenomenon influenced by the dynamic interplay of internal and external school system factors. It is the first known study to position school climate explicitly as the system through which DSE emerges and can be meaningfully addressed.

Date of Award	Dec 2023
Original language	English
Awarding Institution	University of Brighton
Supervisor	Buket Kara (Supervisor), Josie Maitland (Supervisor) & Suna Eryigit-Madzwamuse (Supervisor)